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CONTENTS UNIT
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LAWS UNIT
3. CHALLENGES OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM UNIT
7.CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CIVIL PROCEDURE AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE UNIT
12. A LAW FIRM STRUCTURE AND PRACTISE UNIT
14. IMPRISONMENT: RETRIBUTION OR REHIBILITATION |
UNIT 10. COURT SYSTEM Part 1 INTRODUCTION
TO THE FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM The federal court system has three main levels: district courts (the
trial court), circuit courts which are the first level of appeal, and the
Supreme Court of the United States, the final level of appeal in the federal
system. There are 94 district courts, 13 circuit courts, and one Supreme Court
throughout the country. Courts in the federal system work differently in many ways than state
courts. The primary difference for civil cases (as opposed to criminal cases)
is the types of cases that can be heard in the federal system. Federal courts
are courts of limited jurisdiction, meaning they can only hear cases
authorized by the United States Constitution or federal statutes. The federal
district court is the starting point for any case arising under federal
statutes, the Constitution, or treaties. This type of jurisdiction is called «original
jurisdiction». Sometimes, the jurisdiction of state courts will overlap with
that of federal courts, meaning that some cases can be brought in both
courts. The plaintiff has the initial choice of bringing the case in state or
federal court. However, if the plaintiff chooses state court, the defendant
may sometimes choose to «remove» to federal court. Cases that are entirely based on state law may be brought in federal
court under the court’s «diversity jurisdiction». Diversity jurisdiction
allows a plaintiff of one state to file a lawsuit in federal court when the
defendant is located in a different state. The defendant can also seek to «remove»
from state court for the same reason. To bring a state law claim in federal
court, all of the plaintiffs must be located in different states than all of
the defendants, and the «amount in controversy» must be more than $75,000.
(Note: the rules for diversity jurisdiction are much more complicated than
explained here.) Criminal cases may not be brought under diversity jurisdiction. States
may only bring criminal prosecutions in state courts, and the federal
government may only bring criminal prosecutions in federal court. Also
important to note, the principle of double jeopardy – which does not allow a
defendant to be tried twice for the same charge – does not apply between the
federal and state government. If, for example, the state brings a murder
charge and does not get a conviction, it is possible for the federal
government in some cases to file charges against the defendant if the act is
also illegal under federal law. Federal judges (and Supreme Court «justices») are selected by the
President and confirmed «with the advice and consent» of the Senate and «shall
hold their Offices during good Behavior». Judges may hold their position for
the rest of their lives, but many resign or retire earlier. They may also be
removed by impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction by the
Senate. Throughout history, fourteen federal judges have been impeached due
to alleged wrongdoing. One exception to the lifetime appointment is for
magistrate judges, which are selected by district judges and serve a
specified term. The district courts are the general trial courts of the federal court
system. Each district court has at least one United States District Judge,
appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for a life term.
District courts handle trials within the federal court system – both civil
and criminal. The districts are the same as those for the U.S. Attorneys, and
the U.S. Attorney is the primary prosecutor for the federal government in his
or her respective area. District court judges are responsible for managing the court and
supervising the court’s employees. They are able to continue to serve so long
as they maintain «good behavior», and they can be impeached and removed by
Congress. There are over 670 district court judges nationwide. Some tasks of the district court are given to federal magistrate
judges. Magistrates are appointed by the district court by a majority vote of
the judges and serve for a term of eight years if full-time and four years if
part-time, but they can be reappointed after completion of their term. In
criminal matters, magistrate judges may oversee certain cases, issue search
warrants and arrest warrants, conduct inital
hearings, set bail, decide certain motions (such as a motion to suppress
evidence), and other similar actions. In civil cases, magistrates often
handle a variety of issues such as pre-trial motions and discovery. Federal trial courts have also been established for a few
subject-specific areas. Each federal district also has a bankruptcy court for
those proceedings. Additionally, some courts have nationwide jurisdiction for
issues such as tax (United States Tax Court), claims against the federal
government (United States Court of Federal Claims), and international trade
(United States Court of International Trade). EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
Once the 1)_________ district court has
decided a case, the case can be appealed to a United States court of appeal.
There are twelve federal circuits that divide the country into 2)_________ regions. The Fifth Circuit, for example,
includes the states of Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Cases from the 3)_________
courts of those states are appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for
the Fifth Circuit, which is headquartered in New Orleans, Louisiana.
Additionally, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has a nationwide 4)_________ over very specific issues such as patents. Each circuit court has multiple judges, ranging from six on the First
Circuit to twenty-nine on the Ninth Circuit. Circuit court 5)_________ are appointed for life by
the president and confirmed by the Senate. Any case may be 6)_________ to the circuit court once the district court
has finalized a decision (some issues can be appealed before a final decision
by making an «interlocutory appeal»). Appeals to circuit courts are first 7)_________ by a panel, consisting of three circuit court
judges. Parties file «briefs» to the court, arguing why the trial court’s
decision should be «affirmed» or «reversed». After the briefs are filed, the
court will schedule «oral argument» in which the lawyers come before the
court to make their 8)_________ and answer the
judges’ questions. Though it is rare, the entire circuit court may consider certain
appeals in a process called an «en banc hearing». (The Ninth Circuit has a
different process for en banc than the rest of the circuits.) En banc 9)_________ tend to carry more weight and are usually
decided only after a panel has first heard the case. Once a panel has 10)_________ on an issue and «published» the opinion, no
future panel can overrule the previous decision. The panel can, however, 11)_________ that the circuit take up the case en banc to
reconsider the first panel’s decision. Beyond the Federal Circuit, a few courts have been established to deal
with appeals on 12)_________ subjects such as
veterans claims (United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims) and
military 13)_________ (United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces). 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Суд – это государственный орган, который разрешает правовые споры между
гражданами или организациями (в том числе самим государством). Все вместе
российские суды образуют судебную систему России. Суд не должен ловить преступников или искать доказательства чьей-то
правоты – это делают полиция,
прокуратура, адвокаты и другие люди. Также суд не исполняет свои решения – это
делают Федеральная служба исполнения наказаний (ФСИН) и Федеральная служба
судебных приставов (ФССП). Суд должен лишь изучить аргументы сторон и
доказательства, свериться с законом и решить, кто прав в конкретном споре. Суд – это государственный орган.
Но принцип разделения властей говорит о том, что во время разбирательства он
должен отделяться от общего государственного механизма и работать независимо
от него. И если человек спорит с целым государством, то суд, хотя и является
частью этого государства, должен как бы отойти в сторону и посмотреть со
стороны, кто прав – представители
государства или гражданин. Впрочем, в реальности это происходит не всегда. Судебная система России – тема очень большая и сложная, одной заметкой
её не охватить. Сперва надо разобраться в видах
судов и судопроизводства, а также выяснить смысл базовых терминов и
принципов. Поэтому начнём с этих вещей, а потом постепенно разберёмся в
устройстве судов и их работе. Part 2 SUPREME
COURT OF THE UNITED STATES The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the
American judicial system, and has the power to decide appeals on all cases
brought in federal court or those brought in state court but dealing with
federal law. For example, if a First Amendment freedom of speech case was
decided by the highest court of a state (usually the state supreme court), the case could be appealed to the federal Supreme Court.
However, if that same case were decided entirely on a state law similar to
the First Amendment, the Supreme Court of the United States would not be able
to consider the case. After the circuit court or state supreme court has ruled on a case,
either party may choose to appeal to the Supreme Court. Unlike circuit court
appeals, however, the Supreme Court is usually not required to hear the
appeal. Parties may file a «writ of certiorari» to the court, asking it to
hear the case. If the writ is granted, the Supreme Court will take briefs and
conduct oral argument. If the writ is not granted, the lower court’s opinion
stands. Certiorari is not often granted; less than 1% of appeals to the high
court are actually heard by it. The Court typically hears cases when there
are conflicting decisions across the country on a particular issue or when there
is an egregious error in a case. The members of the Court are referred to as «justices» and, like other
federal judges, they are appointed by the President
and confirmed by the Senate for a life term. There are nine justices on the
court – eight
associate justices and one chief justice. The Constitution sets no
requirements for Supreme Court justices, though all current members of the
court are lawyers and most have served as circuit court judges. Justices are
also often former law professors. The chief justice acts as the administrator
of the court and is chosen by the President and approved by the Congress when
the position is vacant. The Supreme Court meets in Washington, D.C. The court conducts its
annual term from the first Monday of October until each summer, usually
ending in late June. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
Although the post they 1)__________
is judicial, and legal qualifications and experience are often required,
coroners are not considered to be members of the 2)__________
judiciary. However, for especially high-profile 3)__________ a judge may be appointed to
oversee the proceedings as a deputy coroner. The office of coroner was formally established in 1194, originally as
a form of tax gatherer. In the 4)__________
since, the role has evolved into an independent judicial officer, charged
with the investigation of sudden, violent or unnatural death. Unlike the unified courts 5)__________,
administered by HM Courts and Tribunals Service, there are 92 separate
coroners’ jurisdictions in England and Wales. Each jurisdiction is 6)__________ funded and resourced by local
authorities. Coroners are barristers, solicitors or medical 7)__________ of not less than five years
standing, who continue in their legal or medical practices when not sitting
as coroners. Some 32 coroners are «whole time» coroners and are paid an annual
salary regardless of their 8)__________.
The remainder are paid according to the number of cases referred to them. The coroner’s jurisdiction is territorial – it is the location of the dead body
which dictates which coroner has jurisdiction in any 9)__________
case. Coroners are required to appoint a deputy or assistant deputy to act
in their stead if they are out of the 10)__________ or otherwise unable to act.
Deputies and assistant deputies have the same professional qualifications as
the coroner. In exceptionally high-profile or 11)__________ cases, a serving judge may be
appointed as a deputy coroner. For example, in 2007 Lord Justice Scott Baker was 12)__________
as Assistant Deputy Coroner for Inner West London for the purposes of hearing
the inquests into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Emad El-Din Mohamed Abdel Moneim
Fayed (Mr Dodi Al Fayed). Lady Justice Hallett has been appointed
Assistant Deputy Coroner for the Inner West London District of Greater London
in order to conduct the inquests into the deaths of the 56 13)__________
killed in the London bombings on 7 July 2005. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Суды общей юрисдикции (иногда их название сокращают до аббревиатуры «СОЮ»)
занимаются подавляющим большинством дел. Убийства, кражи и изнасилования,
споры о наследстве и разводе, нарушения правил дорожного движения и
незаконные увольнения, защита прав потребителей и жалобы на действия
чиновников, невыплаченные кредиты и коммунальные платежи. Более 90% дел в
России рассматривают суды общей юрисдикции. «Юрисдикция» – это полномочия по рассмотрению каких-то споров, а слово «общая»
подразумевает противопоставление термину «специальная» или «специализированная».
То есть словосочетание «общая юрисдикция» означает, что такой суд
рассматривает все споры, кроме тех, которыми занимаются специализированные
суды (со специальной юрисдикцией). Военные суды – это официально подвид судов общей юрисдикции, но с
отдельной структурой и особой сферой деятельности. В них, в основном,
разбирают споры, связанные с прохождением военной службы (например, дела о
преступлениях военнослужащих или конфликты между военными и их начальством). Арбитражные суды разбирают бизнес-споры.
Это обычно либо конфликт между коммерческими организациями, либо конфликт
между коммерческой организацией и государством. В число арбитражных судов
входит Суд по интеллектуальным правам, расположенный в Москве. Словосочетание
«арбитражный суд» иногда не вполне корректно сокращают до слова «арбитраж». Конституционные и уставные суды (в том числе Конституционный суд РФ)
рассматривают соответствие законов российской Конституции и региональным
конституциям и уставам. Над всеми этими судами, кроме конституционных и уставных, стоит
Верховный суд РФ. Part 3 HISTORY OF COURT DRESS The costumes worn by judges are just about
the most distinctive working wardrobe in existence. But that’s not altogether
surprising: after all, not many uniforms have had seven centuries to evolve… When robes and wigs weren’t traditional Strange as it might seem now, when judges
first started wearing robes and wigs they probably wouldn’t have stood out on
the street. The costume of a High Court judge, for
example – a long robe, a full hood with a cowl covering the shoulders and a
mantle (or cloak) – was more or less
established by the time of Edward III (1327-77) and was based on the correct
dress for attending the royal court. The material for these robes was originally
given to judges as a grant from the Crown, and included ermine and taffeta or
silk. The colours were violet for winter and green in summer, with scarlet
for best, but the last mention of green robes dates back to 1534. In 1635 the definitive guide to court dress
was published in the Judges’ Rules. But this didn’t introduce new costumes;
it just set out what existing robes should be worn, and when. So after 1635, the correctly-dressed judge
would have worn a black robe faced with miniver (a
light-coloured fur) in winter, and violet or scarlet robes, faced with
shot-pink taffeta, in summer. A black girdle, or cincture, was worn with all
robes. Not that these guidelines made the matter of
correct court dress simple. By the mid-eighteenth century, the rules of
1635 were not being stuck to as strictly as the author might have hoped. A less formal version of the robes – a
scarlet robe, black scarf and scarlet casting-hood (also known as a tippet or
stole) – as used for criminal trials, and for civil
trials some judges had begun to wear a black silk gown. When sitting in Westminster Hall – at the
time the home of the courts of law – the mantle was not worn; this was now
saved for ceremonial wear. And grey taffeta was becoming increasingly popular
as an alternative to the pink taffeta used on summer robes. Plain linen bands began to be worn at the
neck, in place of the ruffs associated with Queen Elizabeth I. These were
originally wide collars, but by the 1680s had become what we see today: two
rectangles of linen, tied at the throat. Bands are still usually worn with a winged
collar, rather than the turn-down collar seen on a typical shirt today. Sometimes changes to the court structure
itself have had a major effect on what is worn by judges. The High Court, for example, was created by
the Judicature Acts of 1873-5, absorbing the courts of Chancery, Admiralty,
Probate and Matrimonial Causes. This led to a new dress dilemma; trial judges
in these courts were used to wearing plain black silk gowns. These judges were allowed to keep the dress
code they were used to, and even today, black silk gowns are worn by judges
in the Chancery, Probate, Admiralty, Divorce and Family Divisions. When county courts were created in 1846 the
black gown was also worn. However, in 1915 Judge Woodfall
suggested that a new robe – similar to those worn by High Court judges – be
introduced. A violet robe was chosen, faced – to
distinguish it from the violet High Court robe – in lilac or mauve taffeta. A lilac tippet
and black girdle also formed part of the costume, which due to wartime
conditions did not become compulsory until 1919. A full violet hood for ceremonial occasions
was added in 1937, and the creation of the Crown Court in 1971 led to the
introduction of a scarlet tippet, to be worn during criminal trials. However, this was not compulsory; judges
could choose to wear a black gown instead. Judges at the Central Criminal
Court (the Old Bailey) still wear their black gowns. The Court of Appeal was created at the same
time as the High Court, again combining several existing courts. The Master
of the Rolls (head of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal) and two
other members of the Court of Appeal in Chancery were among the new members
of this court – which probably explains why a black silk gown was chosen. The Court of Criminal Appeal, founded in
1908, originally wore the full black, scarlet or violet robes and regalia,
but in 1966 the court was abolished and re-formed as the Court of Appeal
(Criminal Division). At this point, judges of this court adopted the black
silk gown, with the Queen’s Bench Division following suit soon afterwards. Elaborate robes of black flowered silk
damask, with gold lace and decorations, have been worn by the two senior Chancery
judges – the
Master of the Rolls and the Lord Chancellor – for ceremonial occasions since
the seventeenth century. After the Judicature Acts, the same dress
was adopted by the Lords Justices of Appeal and the President of the Family
Division. These robes cover an equally ornate suit,
including a swallow-tail coat, waistcoat and knee breaches, silk stockings
and patent leather pumps with buckles. This would have been ordinary dress in
the eighteenth century. Until the seventeenth century, lawyers were
expected to appear in court with clean, short hair and beards. Wigs made their first appearance in a
courtroom purely and simply because that’s what was being worn outside it;
the reign of Charles II (1660-1685) made wigs essential wear for polite
society. The judiciary, however, took some time to
convince; portraits of judges from the early 1680s still show judges
defiantly sporting their own natural hair, and wigs do not seem to have been
adopted wholesale until 1685. The reign of George III (1760-1820) saw wigs
gradually go out of fashion. By the end of the century they were mainly worn
by bishops, coachmen and the legal profession – and even bishops were given
permission to stop wearing wigs in the 1830s. Judges wore only full-bottomed wigs until
the 1780s, when the less formal, and smaller, bob-wig, with frizzed sides
rather than curls, and a short tail or queue at the back, was adopted for
civil trials. EXERCISES 1. Sum up the main ides of the text and retell
it in Russian. 2. Fill in the missing words from the box into the
text below.
The Lord Chancellor’s role changed 1)__________ on 3 April 2006, as a result of the Constitutional
Reform Act 2005. For the first time in almost 900 years,
judicial 2)__________ is now officially enshrined in law. The key changes brought in by the act
include: •A duty on 3)__________ ministers to uphold
the independence of the judiciary, barring them from trying to influence
judicial decisions through any special access to judges •Reform of the post of Lord Chancellor,
transferring their judicial functions to the President of the Courts of
England and Wales – a new title given to the Lord Chief
Justice. The Lord Chief Justice is now 4)__________ for the training,
guidance and 5)__________ of judges and represents the views of the
judiciary of England and Wales to Parliament and ministers •An independent Supreme Court has been
established, separate from the House of Lords and with its own independent
appointments system, 6)__________, budget and building •An independent Judicial Appointments
Commission, responsible for selecting candidates to 7)__________ for judicial appointment to the Secretary of State for Justice. The
Judicial Appointments Commission ensures that merit remains the sole
criterion for appointment and the 8)__________ system is modern, open and transparent •An Judicial Appointments and Conduct
Ombudsman, responsible for investigating and making 9)__________ concerning complaints about the judicial appointments process, and the
handling of judicial 10)__________ complaints within the scope of the Constitutional
Reform Act. What has not changed is the 11)__________ judgments are made or given; after all, judges
have been independent in the way they work for centuries. The 12)__________ differences are in the day-to-day management of the judiciary, the way
judges are appointed and the way complaints are dealt with. These are now
truly independent, to enhance accountability, 13)__________ confidence and effectiveness. The Tribunals Service was 14)__________ on 3 April 2006, and brought together the
administration of a large number of individual tribunals, resulting in a 15)__________ common and consistent approach for users. On November 3, 2008, the Tribunals, Courts
and Enforcement Act came into force. This created a new two-tier Tribunal system:
a First– tier Tribunal and an Upper Tribunal, both of which are split into
Chambers. Each Chamber comprises similar jurisdictions or 16)__________ together similar types of experts to hear
appeals. These new super tribunals absorbed over 20
existing smaller tribunals as well as providing a structure to which new 17)__________ rights could be assigned. 3. Read the following article and make a rendering
of it in English. Судопроизводство – это
порядок действий суда при рассмотрении дела. Всего в России есть пять видов
судопроизводства, которые отражают пять типов правовых конфликтов. Синоним
слова «судопроизводство» – «процесс». Уголовное
судопроизводство (уголовный процесс). Суть дела – государство обвиняет человека в совершении
преступления. Место действия – суд общей юрисдикции (в т.ч. военный суд). Как
судить – читаем Уголовно-процессуальный кодекс РФ (УПК РФ). За что судить и
как наказывать – читаем Уголовный
кодекс РФ (УК РФ). Гражданское
судопроизводство (гражданский процесс). Суть дела обычно такова – один субъект (физлицо,
юрлицо, РФ, субъект РФ или муниципалитет) считает,
что другой субъект нарушил его права и нанёс ему имущественный или моральный
ущерб. Поэтому первый субъект (истец) требует от второго субъекта (ответчика)
компенсацию, чаще всего денежную. Место действия – суд общей юрисдикции (в т.ч. военный суд).
Как судить – читаем Гражданский
процессуальный кодекс РФ (ГПК РФ). Как разрешать спор – читаем Гражданский кодекс РФ (ГК РФ), а
также Семейный, Трудовой, Жилищный и Земельный кодексы, закон РФ «О защите
прав потребителей» и другие законы. Административное
судопроизводство (административный процесс). В науке не устоялось чёткое
понимание этого термина, и в разных источниках в него включают разные виды
судопроизводства. Если объединить их все, то получится следующий круг
ситуаций. Первый случай – госорган
привлёк кого-то к административной ответственности (например, оштрафовал
водителя за превышение скорости), а «привлечённый» жалуется в суд. Второй
случай – госорган передаёт в суд дело
об административном правонарушении, где сам не может назначить наказание
(например, об административном аресте или лишении специального права). Третья
ситуация – человек оспаривает действия
госслужащих или органов власти (неправильно посчитали пенсию или налоги, не
регистрируют право собственности на землю, нарушили порядок подсчёта голосов
на выборах и др.). Место действия – суд
общей юрисдикции (в т.ч. военный суд). Как судить в первых двух случаях –
читаем Кодекс РФ об административных правонарушениях (КоАП
РФ), в третьем – Кодекс административного судопроизводства РФ (КАС РФ). Какое
решение выносить в первых двух случаях – читаем КоАП
РФ и ряд других законов, в третьем – законы, регулирующие работу госорганов. Арбитражное
судопроизводство (арбитражный процесс). Здесь тоже может быть несколько
ситуаций. Первая – один бизнесмен обвиняет другого в нарушении договора или
закона и требует компенсации убытков. Вторая ситуация – спор между бизнесменом и госорганом о
налогах или административном правонарушении. Под «бизнесменом» я подразумеваю
как индивидуального предпринимателя (ИП), так и юридическое лицо. Место действия – арбитражный
суд. Как судить – читаем Арбитражный процессуальный кодекс РФ (АПК РФ). Как
разрешать спор – читаем ГК РФ, КоАП РФ и другие законы. Арбитражный процесс
выделяют в особую категорию, потому что происходит он в специальном суде и
регулируется отдельным кодексом. Но некоторые юристы считают, что арбитражный
процесс – лишь разновидность гражданского. Конституционное
судопроизводство (конституционный процесс). Спор зависит от уровня суда. В
первом случае заявитель считает, что один из законов противоречит российской
Конституции, и просит его изменить или отменить. В этом случае место действия
– Конституционный суд РФ. Как судить – ФКЗ «О Конституционном суде РФ». Как
разрешать спор – Конституция РФ и ряд других законов. Во втором случае
заявитель считает, что один из региональных законов противоречит региональной
конституции или уставу. В данном случае «конституция» и «устав» – это одно и
то же, просто конституции есть у республик, а уставы – у всех остальных
регионов. Место действия – конституционный или уставный суд региона.
Как судить и как разрешать спор – читаем законы субъекта РФ. Разумеется, в описании
каждого вида судопроизводства указаны далеко не все возможные конфликты. Есть
много других вопросов – разрешение суда на обыск, ликвидация юрлица, банкротство, развод и т. д. Но пока затронем лишь
основные ситуации. |